Careers in Aviation Psychology

Quick Links to Subsections on this Page
Introduction	Education
Brief History	Employment
Important Terms	Learning More
Subfields	Outlook
A Typical Day	Summary
Pros and Cons	Acknowledgments

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Introduction

PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO AVIATION is an integrative field involving knowledge of just about all areas in psychology ,including perception and attention, cognition, physiological, experimental, industrial/organizational, clinical, and educational. In addition to having knowledge in the field of psychology, one who is interested in studying psychology applied to aviation must know about the aviation field including the pilot's tasks, memory and decision making skills, pilot selection, cockpit designs, human-computer interaction, human factors design, training systems development, program management and human performance research.

An aviation psychologist is concerned with pilot performance and reducing flight crew error. One who is interested in this field will be challenged with the goal of inventing the most efficient way of allowing information to reach the pilot. Important to the pilot is the clarity and speed of information about weather and hazards coming from the air traffic controller, and the rest of his/her team members including copilot, flight engineers, and cabin attendants.

The Aviation Psychologist works to prioritize information coming in to the pilot, so that the more crucial information is salient. Because the field of aviation psychology is integrative, one may hold different titles depending on their area of emphasis. For example, those with an experimental emphasis would be Aerospace Experimental Psychologists (AEP), with an engineering emphasis would be Aerospace Engineering Psychologist, with a human factors emphasis would be Human Factor Specialists in aviation and so on.

History

In 1903, the world's first airplane was invented by Wilbur and Orville Wright . These brothers invented the Wright Flyer which had a 4-cylinder, 12-horsepower engine.

The field of Aviation Psychology grew out of the need to refine/define a more objective and less time-consuming means of selecting candidates for military aviation training. During World War I, the number of pilots needed increased dramatically from other wars, and the initial exploratory research into human abilities and traits that are predictive of success in aviation began. During the pre-WWII military selection in 1940, the "Pensacola Project" begun. This elaborate research program focused on the selection and training of aircraft pilots. In 1942, the Navy's first paper-and-pencil selection test, the Aviation Classification Test/Flight Aptitude Rating (ACT/FAR) was implemented.

During WWII, psychologist Norman Mackworth studied performance of radar operations as he watched for German aircrafts to cross the English Channel. He noted the difficulty of attending to the radar operations for more than a few minutes. After WWII, Paul Fitts studied selective attention and how pilot's eyes scanned an aircraft's instrumental pattern. He questioned how the brain knows what is important in the environment and how much information can the eye take before moving to another fixation point.

Decades after WWII, the focus of research was on aircraft flight design, layout of instrument displays, and basic tasks of flying. Flight simulators were invented for pilot training and would allow for teaching of skills in a safe environment on ground which would transfer into performance in the real task. In the 1950's jet aircrafts were invented with faster speed and less stability. In the 1970's, the focus was on the mental workload and limits of human attention in performing several tasks at once. Finally, in the 1980's a focus on on-board computer power changed the pilot's task from an active pilot to more of a monitoring role.

The study of aviation psychology falls under the broad field of human factors which began during WWII. Human factors is the study of interactions between humans and machines and would apply to aviation in the study of human error when flying an aircraft. Today, the general goal of human factors specialists is to assure that aviation equipment is designed in a manner to be most compatible with human capabilities and limitations in order to reduce the probability of human error, enhance system performance, and assure safety of anyone associated with the equipment.

Important Terms and Definitions

*Some Important Terms in Aviation Psychology*
	Flight Simulator	A computerized training instrument designed to provide the experience of flying an airplane, but on the ground.
	Vigilance Research	Involves detecting the indication of system failure and how problems can be corrected.
	Situational Awareness	Involves the processes of attention, perception, and decision making that form a pilot's mental model of a situation.
	Free Flight	Refers to pilots having the authority to determine their own routes without air traffic control.
	Supertask	A pilot's goal of managing and attending to all flying tasks.

Some Interesting Subfields

Aviation psychology is extremely broad ,including both aviation and psychology. The following subfields provide important information. While the field of aviation psychology is broad, the main focus is always on flight error reduction. Aviation psychologists may attempt to reduce flight error by researching aircraft design and/or pilot performance.

*Some Interesting Subfields Within Aviation Psychology*
	Human-Computer Interaction	Cockpit design and automation are important areas of study.
	Human Factors and Aviation Safety	Human factors studies the human side, rather than the technical side, of why accidents happen, and what can be done to prevent them.
	Research	Aviation Psychologists participate in research to reduce flight error.
	Pilot Tasks and Performance	Aviation Psychologists must know a pilot's job as well as the pilot in order to study performance and error reduction.
	Integrative Topics	This subpage provides information of how different areas of psychology apply to aviation.

A Typical Day Practicing Aviation Psychology

Aviation psychologists are employed by various government, academic, and private institutions throughout the world. Some government agencies include NASA, the Federal Aviation Administration, the National Transportation Safety Board, the U.S. Air Force, Army and Navy.

A typical day of an psychologist working in the field of aviation would depend upon his/her emphasis or specialization. The Clinical Aviation Psychologist would spend the day evaluating the pilot's psychological performance in order to reduce flight error. The Engineering and Experimental Aviation Psychologist would spend the day researching and inventing improvements within the cockpit allowing information to flow to the pilot as fast and clear as possible. One could also be an Educational Aviation Psychologist , who works with crew resource management to improve training programs. An Industrial/Organizational Aviation Psychologist would focus on individual, group, and organizational behavior needed for flying an aircraft. Lastly, one could be an Aviation Human Factors Psychologist and would need to have knowledge and skills involving research design and methods, statistics, decision-making and judgment, stress, workload and performance, fatigue, and body rhythms of sleep. Basically, one's typical day would depend on the psychologist's emphasis (See Integrative Topics).

Pros and Cons of a Career in Aviation Psychology

There are both potentially rewarding and frustrating aspects to working in the field of aviation psychology that need to be carefully considered before pursuing a career in this field. Here are some of the more salient aspects:

*Some Potential Attractions of Careers in Aviation Psychology*
	Pay	One beginning with a bachelors degree in aerospace engineering may start at $40,000. One who has a Ph.D may make $80,000.
	Research	Aviation psychologist sparticipate in a lot of applied research, mostly focused on improving the incoming information to pilots.
	Integrated Field	Aviation psychology involves many areas of psychology, including physiological, cognitive, experimental, industrial/organizational, sensory and perception, and educational areas.
	Challenging and Rewarding	The challenge of an aviation psychologist is to reduce flight error, which in turn will save many lives.
	Teamwork	The aviation psychologist works with many teams involved with flying a plane (e.g., pilots, engineers, researchers, air traffic control).

*Some Potential Drawbacks of Careers in Aviation Psychology*
	Heavy Workload	There is a lot to research. There are no flight errors that can be avoided in the field of aviation.
	Need to be Knowledgeable	Because aviation psychology involves many fields of study, many years of schooling are necessary.
	Faulty Inventions	Although it can be rewarding when research and inventions pay off, the aviation psychologist is also responsible for faulty inventions.
	Competitive	There are few training programs and job positions available in most local areas.

Education and Training for Careers in Aviation Psychology

NEEDED SKILLS, ABILITIES, and KNOWLEDGE: An aviation psychologist must know the pilot's tasks and how all of the equipment in the cockpit operates. Aviation psychologists differ in what they are expected to know, depending on their area and emphasis. For example, one would be an Engineering Psychologist with an engineering emphasis and would need to know about cockpit design. Or, one would be a Aerospace Experimental Psychologist if their emphasis is in the research field. One could be a Clinical Aviation Psychologist if their emphasis is in clinical work. And last, one could be an Aviation Human Factors Psychologist and would need to have knowledge and skills involving research design and methods, statistics, decision-making and judgment, stress, workload and performance, fatigue, and body rhythms of sleep.

An Aviation Psychologist with any area of emphasis will need to be capable of working with computers, decision-making, analytical thinking, teamwork, communication, and must be motivated when faced with challenges. Decision-making and analytical thinking are needed to decide which problem or challenge is most necessary to focus on, and what are the steps that the team should take to reduce the error. One must also be capable of clear communication between team members of the steps to take in reducing error.

OPTIONS AND PAY RANGES WITH A BACHELOR'S DEGREE: According to the March 1999 edition of the National Association of Colleges and Employers Salary Survey Report, the average salary received by bachelors-level psychology majors is $28,019. However, one with only a Bachelor's degree in Psychology may have trouble finding a job in aviation because they need the aviation background. According to figures based on data taken from Engineers' Salaries: Special Industries Report 1996, for one with a Bachelor's degree in aerospace engineering, there are openings for jobs beginning around $40,000. With only a bachelor's degree and some experience, one can make $60,000. The Occupational Outlook Handbook states that according to a 1999 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in aerospace engineering received starting offers averaging about $40,700 a year; master’s degree candidates, $54,200; and Ph.D. candidates, $64,400.

OPTIONS AND PAY RANGES WITH A MASTER'S DEGREE: One can make $70,000 with a master's degree in aerospace engineering, according to Engineers' Salaries: Special Industries Report 1996. The Occupational Outlook Handbook states that according to a 1999 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in aerospace engineering received starting offers averaging about $40,700 a year; master’s degree candidates, $54,200; and Ph.D. candidates, $64,400. One with a master's degree in aerospace engineering can earn almost the same salary as one with a Ph.D. With a master's degree, and aerospace engineer may assume some of the same duties as one with a Ph.D. In most cases, the only difference may be availability of research and teaching positions. Most aerospace engineers involved with teaching or research will have a Ph.D. Entry salary is about $40,000 with a master's degree in human factors. Median salary for a clinical psychologist with a master's degree is $43,000, according to a 1995 survey by the American Psychological Association.

*Some Terminal Master's Degree Programs for Pursuing a Career in Aviation Psychology*
	Human Factors and Systems Degree at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University	This inter-disciplinary program includes education in the content and techniques of human factors .
	Engineering Psychology Joint Program at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign	This program is associated with aviation psychology, cognitive and perceptual human factors, cognitive engineering, engineering psychology, and related areas.
	Engineering Programs at the Ohio State University	Ohio State's engineering programs focus on aerospace engineering, including coursework on cockpit or aircraft designs.
	Experimental Psychology program at Central Michigan University	Coursework involves research seminars; psychological foundations including physiological, learning, social, developmental, perception, and cognition.
	Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Programs at Dayton University	Mechanical and aerospace engineers conceive, plan, design and direct the manufacture, distribution and operation of a wide variety of devices, machines and systems.

OPTIONS AND PAY RANGES WITH A DOCTORAL DEGREE: Options with a doctoral degree include careers in the field of education, medicine, research, and different subfields within the field of psychology. Those who have a Ph.D. in psychology and have an emphasis in experimental, engineering, personnel, training, industrial/organizational, cognition or physiological psychology, and have a strong background in research methodology are needed. In most cases, only a psychologist in aviation with a Ph.D. will do research or teach.

A recent survey shows that entry salaries for human factors professionals are about $47,000 with a Ph.D. With experience in human factors, one can make $60,000. Duties would involve research on psychological factors of aviation, develop and present specialist training and lectures in human factors, and participate in accident investigations.

The top salary for aerospace engineers with a Ph.D is about $80,000. The Occupational Outlook Handbook states that according to a 1999 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor’s degree candidates in aerospace engineering received starting offers averaging about $40,700 a year; master’s degree candidates, $54,200; and Ph.D. candidates, $64,400.

Clinical psychologists with a Ph.D. can make between $50,000 and $75,000, according to a 1995 survey by the American Psychological Association.

Research psychologists with a Ph.D. can make $75,000, according to the 1995 American Psychological Association survey. Aerospace Experimental Psychologists participate in aviation research, safety, human factors engineering, selection and aviation training.

*Some Doctoral Degree Programs for Pursuing a Career in Aviation Psychology*
	Engineering Psychology Joint Program at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign	This program is associated with a number of very general research areas (e.g., aviation psychology, cognitive and perceptual human factors, cognitive engineering, engineering psychology, etc.).
	Engineering Programs at the Ohio State University	These engineering programs have a focus on aerospace. However, there are programs that offer a M.S. and Ph.D. in engineering mechanics and aviation psychology.
	Experimental Psychology program at Central Michigan University	Advanced training in psychological processes, quantitative methodological procedures, and their use in applied settings.

Employment Resources for Aviation Psychology

The following sources provide more information about employment, daily work experiences, and the development and trends in aviation psychology.

*Some Resources for Exploring Careers and Career Prospects in Aviation Psychology*
	Aviation Employment	Job search service specializing exclusively in aviation and aerospace jobs and employment opportunities.
	Psycstac online	Information on career planning and job offerings with various degrees in all areas of psychology including engineering and human factors.

Learning More About Aviation Psychology

Because aviation psychology involves many subfields, success in finding additional information will depend on one's area of interest. The key to a successful search within this field is to know the subareas of human factors, aerospace engineering, clinical psychology, and aerospace experimental psychology. There is a plethora of information in the field of aviation psychology, but not in the area of psychology alone.

*Some General Resources for Learning More about Aviation Psychology*
	Applied Aviation Psychology	This book focuses on issues of aviation safety, crew resource management, pilot training, air traffic control issues in aviation human resources, aviation maintenance, situational awareness, and workshop reports.
	Association of Aviation Psychology	This site offers information on publications, improved education and research, and application of psychological principals to aviation safety and welfare.
	Federal Aviation Administration	Includes information about aviation organizations, career opportunities, education, and safety.

Outlook

According to The Occupational Outlook Handbook those seeking employment as aerospace engineers are likely to face keen competition because the supply of graduates is expected to exceed the number of job openings. The decline in Defense Department expenditures for military aircraft, missiles, and other aerospace systems has caused contractors to merge. In addition, Federal Government funding for research and development of new systems has also declined.

Summary

Aviation psychology includes many subareas of both the fields of aviation and psychology. One who works in this field may choose from many different employment positions with different pay ranges. Although the field is broad, the main focus of study is increasing pilot performance and decreasing flight error. Major areas of study in the field of aviation psychology include human-computer interaction in cockpit designs and safety. The field is attractive, but competitive. The field began in WWII. Since then, aviation psychologists tend to be in high demand only at wartime. However, because the field involves areas of study including both the field of aviation and psychology, those who choose to work in aviation psychology will become well-rounded professionals with many career options.

Acknowledgments

This page was created as a project for a Senior Seminar in Psychology (PSY 400) by Kristy MacMullen. The class was taught by Dr. Arvid J. Bloom at West Chester University in Spring 2000. The author is particularly grateful for the assistance of her classmates, Anne and Claire.